The vacuum tube was the computer’s original bottleneck. Tubes were fragile, hot, and burned out like light bulbs. In 1947, three scientists at Bell Labs—John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley—invented the transistor: a tiny, solid-state switch with no moving parts. The transistor shrunk computers from room-sized to desk-sized, while increasing reliability a thousandfold. The 1950s and 60s became the age of the mainframe. IBM dominated the market with its System/360 family (1964), a modular line of computers that could be scaled for small businesses or governments. For the first time, large organizations could automate payroll, inventory, and customer billing. The computer became a tool of bureaucracy—impersonal, expensive, and centrally controlled.
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